The Jefferson - Hemings Controversy

Episodes

Adair, Douglass. "The Jefferson Scandals." 1960. Fame and the Founding Fathers: Essays by Douglass Adair. New York: Norton, 1974. 160-91.: Provides a brief history of how the legend of Jefferson's relationship with Hemings rose to fame in the Nineteenth century and how, after laying dormant for nearly a century, it has been revived again during the Civil Rights era. After identifying the various publications in the 1950s referring to and accepting the story as fact, Adair sets out to prove that Jefferson did not have a relationship with Sally Hemings, presenting and analyzing "four key documents": Jefferson's Farm Book, the testimony of Jefferson's oldest grandson Colonel Thomas Jefferson Randolph, the memoir of Sally's son Madison Hemings, and the recollections of Monticello slave Isaac Jefferson. Adair analyzes the accuracy of these documents by crosschecking them against one another in an attempt to verify critical facts. Ultimately, Adair concludes that based on certain glaring inconsistencies found in the different documents, a relationship between Jefferson and Hemings did not occur. Going further, Adair posits a love relationship between Hemings and Peter Carr. Adair was editor of the William and Mary Quarterly, the foremost scholarly journal in Early American history.
BaKhufu, Auset. The Six Black Presidents: Black Blood: White Masks USA. Washington: Pik2 Publications, 1993. 1-27.: Doesn't fit chronologically here, but the "wild" content in this discussion of Jefferson by an African American does. Some of the interesting claims are that Jefferson's father was half-black, Sally was auctioned off at Jefferson's death, Jefferson had affairs with black women before his marriage that his wife begged him to stop, sexually inadequate James Madison offered his sexually unsatisfied wife Dolley to the sexually powerful Jefferson in exchange for political favors.
Bennett, Lerone. "Thomas Jeffersonâ€™s Negro Grandchildren." Ebony November 1954: 78-80.: An illustrated human interest piece that features brief profiles of various purported Jefferson descendants includes information on how these great-grandchildren are connected to Jefferson and what their current lives are like. Bennett often makes mention of the tragic irony that they all suffer a relatively low quality of life despite their lofty heritage and also notes how this ancestry features into the descendant's daily lives, both privately and publicly. Bennett concludes that the descendants are by and large proud, but reserved, regarding their lineage. This article for a popular audience in the country's largest mass-circulation African American magazine just a few months after the Brown v. Board of Education ruling signaled that the controversy was alive again and was immediately noted by Jefferson defenders in the scholarly establishment.
Boyd, Julian P. "The Relevance of Thomas Jefferson for the Twentieth Century." American Scholar 22 (1952-53): 61-76.: Jefferson's relevance seems to be that he was a "specialist in tyranny . . . who swore eternal hostility against its every attempt to work upon the mind of man." We have turned our backs on him and embraced a fear regarding the "ability of the people to reject the false and to choose the good." Boyd was then editing of a major collection of Jefferson's works and is seen as a leading member of the "Jefferson Establishment" loathe to consider Jefferson's relationship with Hemings.
Boyd, Julian P. "Thomas Jefferson Survives." American Scholar 20 (1951): 163-73.: Another discussion of the "doctrine of fear on which moral, political, economic and other issues are being resolved" that is contrary to the faith that Jefferson had that the people, when free, may be trusted. The background here is Communism, the rise of corporate power, the pressure for conformity and uniformity, a climate of loyalty oaths and censorship. The danger in these times is for America "to deny its own birthright," and even to do so in Jefferson's name as we "desecrate" his spirit.
Boyd, Julian. "A General View of the Work." The Papers of Thomas Jefferson. Vol. 1. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1950.: The beginning of the mammoth editing project under Boyd's direction. His introduction here gives an indication of the extremely high regard he had for Jefferson and why he and others of the "Jefferson Establishment" were wary of accepting any notion of their man in a relationship with Sally Hemings. Jefferson's work is a "record of the early growth of the Republic" and the "best single gateway" into 18th century America. The principle espoused in his Declaration of Independence is "the most potent idea of modern history" and gave meaning to his versatile genius and selfless industry.
Brady, Tom P. Black Monday: Segregation or Amalgamation . . . America Has Its Choice. Winona: Published by the Association of Citizens' Councils, 1955.: Robert Parkinson: Described as the "metaphysician of the master racists," Mississippi judge Tom Brady needed only six weeks after the Brown decision to produce an incredibly influential ninety-page booklet entitled Black Monday: Segregation or Amalgamation . . . America Has its Choice. This tract, which, in the words of one commentator, contained "the seeds of nearly all the major programs and philosophies that have been adopted by segregationist organizations since 1954," became the semi-official Bible of the Citizens' Councils. With the fame that accompanied Black Monday, Brady, who would be appointed to the Mississippi Supreme Court in 1963, quickly became known as "the godfather" of the segregationist movement
Bruckberger, R. L. Image of America. New York: Viking, 1959. 76-77.: Discusses Jefferson's commitment to freedom, the right citizens have to rebel, and democratic governments. Bruckberger insists that Jefferson fought against ignorance and bigotry "in defense of liberty and self-government." He then proceeds to discuss how, despite the explicit requests of his will, Jefferson's own daughters were sold in the slave market after his death. Bruckberger considers this alleged tragedy to be a testament to Jefferson's justified distrust of the government and to illustrate the constant need to revolt in the effort to ascertain liberty. Most significant for us, the seemingly long-dead story of Jefferson's disregard for his slave children "lives" again in this scholarly work.
Debnam, W. E. Then my old Kentucky home, good night! Raleigh: privately printed, 1955.: Presents a case for why segregated school systems are in the best interest of both the Caucasian and African-American races based on his belief in white supremacy and his fear of miscegenation. Bolstering his argument, Debnam references Jefferson and his opinions towards African-Americans expressed in the Notes on Virginia to prove that Jefferson, too, would oppose integrating school systems during the 1950's. Debnam proceeds to argue that integration is dangerous because the two races will inevitably blend into one "mongrel race" -- based on the allegedly inevitable intercourse that would result if the two were in constant contact during school -- thereby destroying the purity of both the white and black races. To evade integration, he suggests providing parents with the option to send their children to one of two types of government-funded schools: public integrated schools and private segregated schools. Debnam reinforces the need for these two separate school systems by suggesting that it will foster a competitive environment for both school systems, encouraging each to outperform the other. He insists that if either school "can't stand up" against the other, then said school should concede to the need for the succeeding school system. However, Debnam is insistent that no one should have to accept forced racial integration unless they decide to do so of their own volition.
Dos Passos, John. The Shackles of Power: Three Jeffersonian Decades. Garden City: Doubleday, 1966. 150-55.: Dos Passos recounts the series of events triggered by Callender under the title "Freedom of the Press" that focuses on Jefferson's tolerance for the heavy-handed criticism leveled at him. Since he quotes liberally from the Randall letter to Parton, it appears that Dos Passos accepts the version with Peter Carr as Sally's lover.
Du Bois, W. E. B. "The Propaganda of History." Black Reconstruction: An Essay toward a History of the Part Which Black Folk played in the Attempt to Reconstruct Democracy in America, 1860-1880. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1935. 722.: Prominent African American Du Bois criticizes the way history is taught and the pervasive idea that evil must be forgotten, for then "history loses its value as an incentive and example; it paints perfect men and noble nations, but it does not tell the truth." One of the things "forgotten" is that "Thomas Jefferson had mulatto children," a sign that the oral tradition in the African American community persists despite the long-standing official narrative of the Jefferson-Hemings relationship.
Duberman, Martin B. In White America: A Documentary Play. New York: New American Library, 1964. 88-95.: This "documentary" play uses primary sources ranging from the notes of a doctor aboard a slave ship to Senate debates that are recorded in the Congressional Record. In his preface, Duberman states that he was motivated to describe what it has been like to be a Negro in America by the failure of journalism and professional history to tell the true story: "Both have been dominated by whites, and the whites, whether from guilt, indifference, or hostility, have been slow to reveal the Negro's past. The revelations are painful, but they must be faced if the present is to be understood, and the future made more tolerable." Jefferson is a character, and sections of Notes on the State of Virginia appear in his dialogue (see the appendix).
Ellison, Ralph. Invisible Man. New York: Random House, 1952.: This canonical African American novel about racism in America contains a reference to the Jefferson-Hemings relationship. The Boston philanthropist Norton, who supports the Booker T. Washington-like school to assuage his guilt, is introduced as Jefferson by a mentally ill black veteran: "I should know my grandfather! He's Thomas Jefferson and I'm his grandson -- on the field-nigger side." There's also a Jefferson in Ellison's short story "Flying Home" (1944).
Furnas, J. C. Goodbye to Uncle Tom. New York: William Sloane, 1956. 139-41.: Characterizes the nature of sexual interactions on plantations during slavery and attempts to determine how frequently master-slave relations occurred. Furnas postulates that both female housemaids and attractive field hands were the objects of fierce and ubiquitously frequent sexual pursuit from young white masters. The author also suggests that sexual encounters of all sorts were common on plantations, both between masters and slaves as well as solely between slaves. Furnas then weighs varying reports on the frequency of sexual liaisons between the actual slaveholders (or Masters) and slave women, concluding that encounters of this type were plentiful in the South. In drawing this conclusion, Furnas uses Thomas Jefferson as an example of "only one of many" slaveholders who engaged in these sorts of relationships. A Book-of-the-Month club selection distributed to hundreds of thousands of homes across the country.
Graham, Pearl M. "Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings." Journal of Negro History 46.2 (1961): 89-103.: Presents a detailed picture of the relationship between Jefferson and Hemings and the lives both they and their offspring led through the use of facts, stories, interviews, and inference. Graham begins by explaining how Sally came to live at Monticello, her trip to Paris, and the succeeding relationship she presumably had with Jefferson. She consults Jefferson's Farm Book and presents pertinent dates to illustrate the strong likelihood that Jefferson was the father of Hemings's various children. Graham proceeds to provide speculations regarding the lives of Sally and her children after Jefferson died based on the testimony of Sally's great-granddaughters, the granddaughters of Harriet Hemings. Using their "general impressions" and "specific family traditions," Graham presents an educated guess from the records on Monticello as to what the lives of Sally, Madison, Eston, and Harriet Hemings were like after they disappeared. This article by an African American in an African American journal is a significant indication that the African American community has never let the story die.
Jordan, Winthrop D. "Thomas Jefferson: Self over Society." White over Black: American Attitudes toward the Negro, 1550-1812. Chapel Hill: U of North Carolina P, 1968. 429-81.: Postulates that Jefferson held a very dynamic and distinct view of women because of the unusual circumstances of his childhood, in which the environment he grew up in was by-and-large composed almost exclusively of females. Jordan argues that after being rejected by a love interest during his young adulthood, Jefferson grew resentful and distrusting of women. He suggests that Jefferson came to perceive them as maliciously sexually aggressive and grew especially concerned about slave women's breeding habits. Jordan then goes on to apply this theory in the context of the Jefferson's alleged relationship with Hemings. Jordan's goal is not to prove or disprove the relationship but, rather, to imagine the possible feelings Jefferson would have had regarding a relationship with Sally given his complex emotions regarding African-American women. Jordan speculates that Jefferson either would have felt guilt for giving in to his heart instead of his head or that, conversely, Jefferson would have felt relief at finding an equilibrium between the two of them.
King, Martin Luther, Jr. Why We Can't Wait. New York: Harper & Row, 1964. 97, 145.: For King, leader of one pole of the Civil Rights Movement, Jefferson is a "dedicated democrat" and the Declaration of Independence contains "magic words." See Malcolm X, leader of another pole of the movement, for the anti-Jefferson view.
Malcolm X. Malcolm X on Afro-American History. New York: Pathfinder, 1965. 39-40.: Beseeches his fellow African-Americans to alter their perception of "the founding fathers" -- "such as Jefferson, Washington, Adams, etcetera" -- in light of the racist views these men held towards blacks. Malcolm X insists that these men are neither honorable nor to be credited with establishing a democracy. Instead, he insists, they are crooks and thieves who created a criminal system. Malcolm X is especially critical of Jefferson as he points out that while he may have written "all men are created equal," he also held slaves -- meaning he never intended for such words to apply to blacks. Malcolm X strives to make his fellow African-Americans realize that the founding fathers are not be idolized by them but, rather, looked upon with the same contempt with which they seemingly would look upon them. Cf. Martin Luther King's view of Jefferson.
Malone, Dumas. "The Jefferson Faith." Saturday Review 13 April 1943: 4.: In this book review, written in the year of the bicentennial of Jefferson's birth and the year of the dedication of the Jefferson Memorial, and written during World War II, this eventual leader of the so-called "Jefferson Establishment" early shows his "faith" in this man who transmitted a faith to us: "What [Jefferson] most prized was the free life of the human spirit," and his opposition to governments who "value power for its own sake . . . is most salutary at the present moment."
Malone, Dumas. "The Miscegenation Legend." Jefferson the President: First Term, 1801-1805. Vol. 4 of Jefferson and His Time. Boston: Little, Brown, 1970. 494-98.: In an appendix, Malone disproves the "legend" that Jefferson fathered Hemings's children. The "rational explanation" for Jefferson's favored treatment of the Hemingses -- local talk about which would have been part of the foundation for the legend -- is that Jefferson "shouldered and bore quietly for a half a century a grievous burden of responsibility," for they were "the illegitimate half brothers and sisters of his own adored wife," whose father John Wayles took Sally's mother Betty Hemings for a concubine. Jefferson, then, was a kind of "victim of the slave system he abhorred." "There is material here for the tragedian," Malone says, but this conduct toward his slaves was "quite in his character as a private man." In addition, Malone asserts the paternity of one of the Carr brothers, accepting the "categorical statement" made by Thomas Jefferson Randolph "long years ago" and seconded with a slight shift by Ellen Randolph Coolidge. Malone, winner of a Pulitzer Prize for his multi-volume biography of Jefferson, was the premier Jefferson scholar of his day, an ardent defender of Jefferson in this controversy, and so powerful that labeling the controversy a legend had almost legislative force.
Malone, Dumas. "The Torrent of Slander." Jefferson the President: First Term, 1801-1805. Vol. 4 of Jefferson and His Time. Boston: Little, Brown, 1970. 206-23.: The torrent of slanderous attacks on Jefferson's personal character -- the historical significance of which can be "easily exaggerated" and which had only "slight political consequence" -- have "rarely if ever been matched in presidential history." Most of them emanated from the "single poisoned spring" of Callender, an "impecunious and disreputable journalist," "one of the most notorious scandalmongers and character assassins in American history," a "needy man" who took advantage of the gullibility and charity of a generous man. Callender's charges about Hemings are suspect because "they issued from the vengeful pen of an unscrupulous man," they cannot be proved, and "they are distinctly out of character [and] virtually unthinkable in a man of Jefferson's moral standards and habitual conduct." The Sally story should be left where he left it, wrapped in a "mantle of silence."
Martin, John Bartlow. The Deep South Says "Never." New York: Ballantine Books, 1957.: Compact account of the situation in the Deep South and Border States in the period just after "Black Monday," focusing on the activities of the Citizens' Councils resisting desegregation.
Peterson, Merrill D. The Jefferson Image in the American Mind. New York: Oxford UP, 1960. 181-87.: For Peterson -- along with Malone and Boyd, one of the premier Jefferson scholars, and defenders, of the day -- the Jefferson-Hemings relationship was a "legend" fostered by three factors: its political use by Federalists and British critics; the institution of slavery with both "the Negroes' pathetic wish for a little pride" and "the cunning of the slave trader" to increase the value of his goods; and such aspects of Jefferson's personal history as "his wife's early death, his brief affair with Mrs. Walker . . . [and] his great interest in Negroes generally along with his particular kindness to some of his slaves." Out of such came the intriguing legend of "Black Sal."
Peterson, Merrill D. Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation. New York: Oxford UP, 1970.
Putnam, Carleton. Race and Reason: A Yankee View. Washington: Public Affairs Press, 1961.: Robert Parkinson: Another significant book that plays up Jefferson's racism is Carleton Putnam's 1961 Race and Reason: A Yankee View. One contemporary observer ranked Putnam's book as "probably the most popular pro-segregation book" since Black Monday and Herman Talmadge's You and Segregation. So highly regarded was Race and Reason that Gov. Ross Barnett proclaimed 26 October 1961 "Race and Reason Day" in Mississippi. Legislators in Louisiana found the book compelling enough to pass a resolution ordering "selected mature students" to study the book in state high schools.
Reed, Ishmael. "Gliberals." New York Times 31 March 1973: 35.: African American Reed names Jefferson "the founding gliberal" of a group including such liberals as Adlai Stevenson and the Kennedys, who "flit from one position to another without the modifying transitions, because they say it so pretty."
Rogers, J. A. The Five Negro Presidents: According to What White People Said They Were. New York: Helga M. Rogers, 1965.: Jefferson, Jackson, Lincoln, Harding, and an unnamed fifth are said to have negro blood.
Rogers, J. A. Sex and Race: A History of White, Negro, and Indian Miscegenation in the Two Americas. Vol. II: The New World. New York: J. A. Rogers, 1940-1944.: The idea that there are two races in America is "loose talk": "There is only one race -- the human race." It is possible for anyone to have a Negro ancestor, and many have a Negro strain and don't know it. Thomas Jefferson, for instance, "seems to have had a particular fondness for dark feminine flesh," as did such other famous men as Patrick Henry, Ben Franklin, Jefferson Davis, and Henry Calhoun. Let's get rid of the notions of two races and the Jim Crow laws so that the future generation can have better opportunity.
Shalett, Sidney. "Roosevelt, Hailing Jefferson, Looks to Gain Liberty." New York Times 14 April 1943: 1.: The enormous public recognition as the "apostle of freedom" surrounding Jefferson's elevation into the truly first rank of American presidents and heroes provides a significant gateway to understanding what roles he plays in the upcoming civil rights era.
Talmadge, Herman. You and Segregation. Birmingham: Vulcan Press 1955.
Weyl, Nathaniel. The Negro in American Civilization. Washington: Public Affairs Press, 1960.: Robert Parkinson: Weyl went to even greater lengths than either Brady or Putnam to present the anti-integration image of Jefferson. He devotes an entire chapter to correct the accepted version of Jefferson's "attitude toward slavery and the Negro," which he argues had been "systematically misrepresented." Using what had by 1963 become predictable language, Weyl argues that Jefferson had been "falsely depicted as an egalitarian, as a friend of the Negro and as a crusader against slavery."