The Literature of Justification - Roanoke

Roanoke - Timeline (Collapse All)

Preparation (1584)

March 25, 1584: Queen Elizabeth issues a charter to Sir Walter Raleigh so that he may settle in America. (Henry Steele Commager, Documents of American History. 8th ed. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1968.)

April 27, 1584: Philip Amadas and Arthur Barlowe, explorers sent by Sir Walter Raleigh, depart for the New World. They arrive on Roanoke Island on July 13, 1584. On the fourth day they are visited by Granganimo, brother to chief Wingina. When Amadas and Barlowe return to England, they bring two natives with them, Manteo (a Croatoan Indian) and Wanchese. Barlowe writes an account of the New World, which Amadas signs. The account is compiled and circulated in December of 1584. (Quinn, New American World) (Virtual Jamestown)

The second of July, we found shole water, wher we smelt so sweet, and so strong a smel, as if we had bene in the midst of some delicate garden abounding with all kinde of odoriferous flowers . . .
according to the ceremonies used in such enterprises, we viewed the land about us, being, whereas we first landed, very sandie and low towards the waters side, but so full of grapes, as the very beating and surge of the Sea overflowed them, of which we found such plentie, as well there as in all places else, both on the sand and on the greene soile on the hils, as in the plaines, as well on every little shrubbe, as also climing towardes the tops of high Cedars, that I thinke in all the world the like abundance is not to be found . . .
The next day there came unto us divers boates, and in one of them the Kings brother, accompanied with fortie or fiftie men, very handsome and goodly people, and in their behaviour as mannerly and civill as any of Europe. His name was Granganimeo, and the king is called Wingina, the country Wingandacoa, and now by her Majestie Virginia. The maner of his comming was in this sort: hee left his boates altogether as the first man did a little from the shippes by the shore, and came along to the place over against the ships, followed with fortie men. When he came to the place over against the ships, followed with fortie men. When he came to the place, his servants spread a long matte upon the ground, on which he sate downe, and at the other ende of the matte foure others of his companie did the like, the rest of his men stood round about him, somewhat a farre off: when we came to the shore to him with our weapons, hee never mooved from his place, nor any of the other foure, nor never mistrusted any harme to be offred from us, but sitting still he beckoned us to come and sit by him, which we performed: and being set hee made all signes of joy and welcome, striking on his head and his breast and afterwardes on ours, to shewe wee were all one, smiling and making shewe the best he could of all love, and familiaritie. . . .
We found the people most gentle, loving and faithful, void of all guile and treason, and such as lived after the manner of the Golden Age.

September 1584: Richard Hakluyt the Younger writes A Discourse of Western Planting, presenting it to Queen Elizabeth in October of the same year. The intent of the document is to gain royal support and provide Raleigh with advice. (Quinn and Quinn, Discourse) (see essay by Elizabeth Wambold)

Firste seeke the kingdomme of god and the righteousness thereof, and all other thinges shalbe mynistred vnto you: Nowe the meanes to sende suche as shall labour effectually in this business ys by plantinge one or twoo Colonies of our nation vpon that fyrme, where they may remaine in safetie, and firste learne the language of the people nere adioyninge (the gifte of tongues beinge now taken awaye) and by little and little acquainte themselues with their manner and so with discrecion and myldenes distill into their purged myndes the swete and lively lignes of the gospel.
The people goodd and of a gentle and amyable nature which willingly will obey.

1585: Richard Hakluyt the Elder writes his “Inducements” – “Inducements to the lykinge of the voyadge intended to that parte of America which lyethe betwene 34. and 36. degree” and “Inducements to the Liking of the Voyage intended towards Virginia in 40. and 42. degrees.” (Quinn, New American World)

8. If our nation does not make any conquest there, but only use trafficke and change of commodities, yet by meane the countrey is not very mightie, but divided into pety kingdoms, they shall not dare to offer us any great annoy, but such as we may easily revenge with sufficient chastisement to the unarmed people there.

21. The ends of this voyage are these:
1. To plant Christian religion.
2. To trafficke.
3. To conquer.
Or, to doe all three.

31. In regard whereof many circumstances are to be considered; and principally, by what meane the people of those parties may be drawen by all courtesie into love with our nation; that we become not hatefull unto them, as the Spaniard is in Italie and in the West Indies, and elsewhere, by their maner of useage; for a gentle course without cruelite and tyrannie best answereth the profession of a Christian, best planteth Christian religion; maketh our seating most void of blood, most profitable in trade of merchandise, most firme and stable, and least subject to remove by practice of enemies.

1585: Sir Walter Raleigh writes out notes planning the first colony voyage – “For Master Rauleys Voyage.” These are primarily military in style, discussing the sorts of forts that are to be built and the military style government that will be adopted. (Quinn, Roanoke)

First Colony (1585 – 1586)

June 18, 1585: Sir Walter Raleigh sends out a party under the command of Sir Richard Grenville with the assistance of Ralph Lane to found a colony to be named Virginia. Thomas Hariot (chief scientist, instructed to study Indian culture) and John White (surveyor and artist) are given special instructions to study the land and people as part of this all-male venture. They land on Roanoke Island in Palmico Sound and build a fort.

July 29, 1585: Granganimo comes with Manteo (who has returned to the Americas and is acting a sort of liaison between the English and the natives) to Port Ferdinando to discuss the location of an English fort.

August 17, 1585: Sir Richard Grenville returns to England for supplies, leaving Ralph Lane in charge of the colony, and writes an account of his voyage. (Virtual Jamestown)

Late Winter / Early Spring of 1586: Granganimo dies. Wingina, who is the chief, renames himself Pemisapan (which in rough translation indicates a distrust of white men) to show his wariness of the colonists.

March 1586: Lane takes the lame King Mematonon of Chawanook hostage and forces him to act as a guide in exploring other inhabited areas ruled by other tribes. He frees the king but keeps his favorite son, Skiko, with him. This act shows Lane’s use of Indian tribes against one another.

April 20, 1586: Ensenore, father of Chief Wingina / Pemisapan dies. He is one of the few Indians to still support the colonists and was crucial in opposing hostility.

June 1, 1586: Lane kills Chief Wingina / Pemisapan after the two plot back and forth to kill one another. Part of the reason behind the tensions was Lane’s continuous demand that the Indians provide the settlers with food.

June 19, 1586: Sir Francis Drake, stopping in during pirate raids, departs from the colony, taking the colonists, many of whom are suffering from food shortages, back to England with him, leaving behind three men who are out on an excursion. Drake had simply meant to leave the colonists with supplies and a few ships, but a major storm destroyed most of what he intended to leave, thus causing the colonists to want to leave with him. In their haste to depart, most books and writings are left behind or tossed into the sea. Drake had in his possession at the time several hundred African and Indian slaves who were either drowned in the storm or were left on the island – there is no mention of their fate.

July 1586: The re-supply ship led by Sir Richard Grenville arrives. Finding the colony deserted, Grenville leaves fifteen men to hold the fort. (Virtual Jamestown)

About foureteene or fifteene dayes after the departure of the aforesayd shippe, Sir Richard Grinvile Generall of Virginia, accompanied with three shippes well appointed for the same voyage, arrived there; who not finding the aforesayd shippe according to his expectation, nor hearing any newes of our English Colony there seated, and left by him anno 1585, himselfe travelling up into divers places of the countrey, aswell to see if he could heare any newes of the Colony left there by him the yeere before, under the charge of Master Lane his deputy, as also to discover some places of the countrey: but after some time spent therein, not hearing any newes of them, and finding the places which they inhabited desolate, yet unwilling to loose the possession of the countrey which Englishmen had so long held: after good deliberation, hee determined to leave some men behinde to reteine possession of the Countrey: whereupon he landed fifteene men in the Isle of Roanoak, furnished plentifully with all maner of provision for two yeeres, and so departed for England.

July 27, 1586: Ralph Lane writes a report to Sir Walter Raleigh, telling him what took place during his time with the colony. (Quinn, New American World) (Virtual Jamestown)

[The settlers] left all things so confusedly, as if they had bene chased from thence by a mightie armie, and no doubt so they were, for the hande of God came upon them for the crueltie, and outrages committed by some of them against the native inhabitants of that Countrie.

Late 1586: Richard Hakluyt writes his own rendition of the colony events. It is mostly propaganda -- glossing over the hardships of the colony, making it sound as if the colonists were in better shape than they were. There is, however, one mention of the cruelties done to the natives. (Quinn and Quinn, First Colonists)

Second Colony (1587 – 1593)

1587: Hakluyt publishes editions of Peter Martyr's Decades and Rene de Goulaine de Laudonniere's A notable historie containing foure voyages made by certayne French captaynes vnto Florida, both dedicated to Raleigh, as support for colonization.

July 22, 1587: Between 110 and 150 settlers, led by John White (Governor) and twelve assistants, arrive on Roanoke Island. They originally depart with the intention of settling in the Chesapeake Bay area but are instead forced to settle in the area of the original abandoned fort because the captain of the ship, Simon Fernandes, ordered them ashore at the old settlement so that he could get back to hunting Spanish ships. This second colony is different in that it is family structured, containing women and children, while all other previous settlements had been in a military style. Manteo returns again with the group. John White keeps a journal of events throughout their stay in the colony. (Quinn, New American World) (Virtual Jamestown)

July 28, 1587: As recounted in White's journal, George Howe, one of the assistants to Governor White, is murdered by Indians while fishing alone in shallow water. This marks the beginning of the downward spiral of English / Indian relations. (Virtual Jamestown)

The eight and twentieth, George Howe, one of our twelve Assistants was slaine by divers Savages, which were come over to Roanoak, either of purpose to espie our company, and what number we were, or else to hunt Deere, whereof were many in the Island. These Savages being secretly hidden among high reedes, where oftentimes they find the Deere asleep, and so kill them, espied our man wading in the water alone, almost naked, without any weapon, save only a smal forked sticke, catching Crabs therewithal, and also being strayed two miles from his company, and shot at him in the water, where they gave him sixteen wounds with their arrowes: and after they had slaine him with their wooden swords, they beat his head in pieces, and fled over the water to the maine.

July 30, 1587: Captain Stafford takes Manteo and twenty men over to Croatoan Island to investigate the murder of George Howe. The Indians reveal that Howe was killed by some of Wingina’s men, who lived in Dasamonquepeio, along with Wanchese (who was one of the original Indians taken back to America with Amadas and Barlowe – upon his return to America he became hostile towards the English). The Indians said that the fifteen colonists who had been left behind were ambushed and killed by thirty warriors from the Secota, Aquascogoc, and Damonquepeio tribes. The Croatoans agree to renew old ties with the colonists but plead with them not to take any of their grain, as they are already short of food. They also ask the settlers to give them some sort of mark to identify them from Wingina’s people, so that they may avoid mistaken hostility. (In the time that Lane’s colony was in the area there were several incidents in which Croatoan people were mistakenly attacked.) (Virtual Jamestown)

and also we understood by them of Croatoan, how that the 15 Englishmen left at Roanoak the yeere before, by Sir Richard Grinvile, were suddenly set upon, by 30 of the men of Secota, Aquascogoc, and Dasamonguepek, in manner following. They conveyed themselves secretly behind the trees, neere the houses where our men carelesly lived: and having perceived that of those fifteene they could see but eleven only, two of those Savages appeared to the 11 Englishmen, calling to them by friendly signes, that but two of their chiefest men should come unarmed to speake with those two Savages, who seemed also to bee unarmed. Wherefore two of the chiefest of our Englishmen went gladly to them: but whilest one of those Savages traiterously imbraced one of our men, the other with his sworde of wood, which he had secretly hidden under his mantell, strooke him on the head and slew him, and presently the other eight and twenty Savages shewed them selves: the other Englishman perceiving this, fled to his company, whom the Savages pursued with their bowes, and arrowes, so fast, that the Englishmen were forced to take the house, wherein all their victuall, and weapons were: but the Savages, foorthwith set the same on fire: by meanes wherof our men were forced to take up such weapons as came first to hand, and without order to runne foorth among the Savages, with whom they skirmished above an howre. In this skirmish another of our men was shotte into the mouth with an arrow, where hee died: and also one of the Savages was shot into the side by one of our men, with a wild fire arrow, whereof he died presently. The place where they fought was of great advantage to the Savages, by meanes of the thicke trees, behinde which the Savages through their nimblenes, defended themselves, and so offended our men with their arrowes, that our men being some of them hurt, retyred fighting to the water side, where their boat lay, with which they fled towards Hatorask.
On the thirtieth of July Master Stafford and twenty of our men passed by water to the Island of Croatoan, with Manteo, who had his mother, and many of his kinred dwelling in that island, of whom wee hoped to understand some newes of our fifteene men, but especially to learne the disposition of the people of the countrey towards us, and to renew our old friendship with them. At our first landing they seemed as though they would fight with us: but perceiving us begin to march with our shot towardes them, they turned their backes, and fled. Then Manteo their countrey man called to them in their owne language, whom, assoone as they heard, they returned, and threwe away their bowes and arrows, and some of them came unto us, embracing us and entertaining us friendly, desiring us not to gather or spill any of their corne, for that they had but little. We answered them, that neither their corne, nor any other nor any other thing of theirs should be diminished by any of us, and that our comming was onely to renew the old love, that was betweene us and them at the first, and to live with them as brethren and friends: which answere seemed to please them well, wherefore they requested us to walke up to their Towne, who there feasted us after their maner, and desired us earnestly, that there might bee some token or badge given them of us, whereby we might know them to be our friends, when we met them any where out of the Towne or Island.

August 8, 1587: White, who had proposed a meeting of all leaders in an attempt to resolve hostilities, realizes that he will not receive an answer from the Pomeiock, Aquascogoc, Secota, and Dasamonquepeio chiefs. On the next day, in an attempt to avenge the death of Howe, White leads an attack against the village of Dasamonquepeio. Mistakenly, though, the Indians who are killed are of the Croatoan tribe who had been there to take what they could from the settlement after the Roanokes deserted it. Some of those killed were women. Because of this, the Croatoans refuse to supply the colonists with food when theirs begins to spoil. (Virtual Jamestown)

we landed neere the dwelling place of our enemies, & very secretly conveyed our selves through the woods, to that side, where we had their houses betweene us and the water: and having espied their fire, and some sitting about it, we presently set on them: the miserable soules herewith amazed, fled into a place of thicke reedes, growing fast by, where our men perceiving them, shot one of them through the bodie with a bullet, and therewith we entred the reedes, among which we hoped to acquite their evill doing towards us, but we were deceived, for those Savages were our friends, and were come from Croatoan to gather the corne & fruit of that place, because they understood our enemies were fled immediately after they had slaine George Howe, and for haste had left all their corne, Tobacco, and Pompions standing in such sort, that al had bene devoured by the birds, and Deere, if it had not bene gathered in time: but they had like to have payd deerely for it: for it was so darke, that they being naked, and their men and women appareled all so like others, wee knew not but that they were al men: and if that one of them which was a Wiroances wife had not had a child at her backe, shee had bene slaine in stead of a man, and as hap was, another Savage knew master Stafford, and ran to him, calling him by his name, whereby hee was saved.

August 13, 1587: Manteo is christened and, by previous orders of Sir Walter Raleigh, receives the title “Lord of Roanoke.”

August 18, 1587: John White’s daughter, Eleanor Dare, wife of Ananias Dare, one of the assistants, gives birth to daughter Virginia, the first English child born in America.

August 22, 1587: The assistants and planters request that White return to England for supplies. White refuses on the basis that he will be seen as abandoning the expedition, that his possessions will all be ruined by the time he returns. On the next day, the request is made again that White should return for supplies. The colonists provide him with a signed pledge that they will not hold him accountable for abandonment and that they will care for his possessions in his absence. White returns to England for supplies on August 28. (Virtual Jamestown)

The next day the 22 of August, the whole company both of the Assistants and planters came to the Governour, and with one voice requested him to returne himselfe into England, for the better and sooner obtaining of supplies, and other necessaries for them: but he refused it, and alleaged many sufficient causes, why he would not: the one was, that he could not so suddenly returne backe againe without his great discredite, leaving the action, and so many whome hee partly had procured through his perswasions, to leave their native countrey, and undertake that voyage, and that some enemies to him and the action at his returne into England would not spare to slander falsly both him and the action, by saying, hee went to Virginia, but politikely, and to no other end but to leade so many into a countrey, in which hee never meant to stay himselfe, and there to leave them behind him. Also he alleaged, that seeing they intended to remove 50 miles further up into the maine presently, he being then absent, his stuffe and goods might be both spoiled, & most of them pilfered away in the cariage, so that at his returne he should be either forced to provide himselfe of all such things againe, or else at his comming againe to Virginia find himselfe utterly unfurnished, whereof already he had found some proofe, being but once from them three dayes. Wherefore he concluded that he would not goe himselfe.

1588: Thomas Hariot’s manuscript, A Briefe and True Report of the Newfound Land of Virginia, which details his findings and observations from the first voyage, is published. It is the first authentic eyewitness account of the colony. (Quinn, New American World) (Virtual Jamestown)

In respect to us they are a people poore, and for want of skill and juegement in the knowledge and use of our things, doe esteeme our trifles before things of greater value: Nothwithstanding, in their proper maner (considering the want of such meanes as we have), they seeme to be very ingenious. For although they have no suche tooles, nor any such crafts, Sciences and Artes as wee, yet in those things they doe, they shew excellence of wit. And by how much they upon due consideration shall finde our maner of knowledges and crafts to exceede theirs in perfection, and speede for doing or execution, by so much of the more is it probable that they should desire our friendship and love, and have the greater respect for pleasing and obeying us. Whereby may bee hoped, if meanes of good government be used, that they may in short time bee brought to civilitie, and the imbracing of true Religion.

1588: John White writes about his failed attempt to reach the colonists (they were delayed during war with Spain). (Quinn, New American World)

Being thus hurt and spoiled they robbed us of all our victuals, powder, weapons and provision, saving a small quantity of biscuit to serve us scarce for England. Our Master and his Mate were deadly wounded so that they were not able to come forth of their beds. I my selfe was wounded twise in the head, once with a sword, and another time with a pike, and hurt also in the side of the buttoke with a shot.

March 20, 1590: John White departs from England in fleet of three small ships, the Hopewell, Little John, and John Evangelist. White was merely a passenger on these ships, with the mission of relieving the colony secondary to the main mission of plundering other ships.

August 18, 1590: John White returns to find the colony, forever afterwards known as the "Lost Colony," deserted, with no trace except for the word “CROATOAN” that is carved on a post. This is an ambiguous sign, as it is the name not only of a tribe but also of a nearby island. (Virtual Jamestown)

from thence we returned by the water side, round about the North point of the Iland, untill we came to the place where I left our Colony in the yeere 1586. In all this way we saw in the sand the print of the Salvages feet of 2 or 3 sorts troaden ye night, and as we entred up the sandy banke upon a tree, in the very browe thereof were curiously carved these fair Romane letters C R O: which letters presently we knew to signifie the place, where I should find the planters seated, according to a secret token agreed upon betweene them & me at my last departure from them, which was, that in any wayes they should not faile to write or carve on the trees or posts of the dores the name of the place where they should be seated; for at my comming away they were prepared to remove from Roanoak 50 miles into the maine. Therefore at my departure from them in An. 1587 I willed them, that if they should happen to be distressed in any of those places, that then they should carve over the letters or name, a Crosse.

in this forme, but we found no such signe of distresse. And having well considered of this, we passed toward the place where they were left in sundry houses, but we found the houses taken downe, and the place very strongly enclosed with a high palisado of great trees, with cortynes and flankers very Fort-like, and one of the chiefe trees or postes at the right side of the entrance had the barke taken off, and 5 foote from the ground in fayre Capitall letters was graven CROATOAN without any crosse or signe of distresse; this done, we entred into the palisado, where we found many barres of Iron, two pigges of Lead, foure yron fowlers, Iron sacker- shotte, and such like heavie things, throwen here and there, almost overgrowen with grasse and weedes. From thence wee went along by the water side, towards the point of the Creeke to see if we could find any of their botes or Pinnisse, but we could perceive no signe of them, nor any of the last Falkons and small Ordinance which were left with them, at my departure from them. At our returne from the Creeke, some of our Saylers meeting us, tolde that they had found where divers chests had bene hidden, and long sithence digged up againe and broken up, and much of the goods in them spoyled and scattered about, but nothing left, of such things as the Savages knew any use of, undefaced.

September 30, 1590: After failed attempts and poor weather, the fleet White is traveling with sets course for England. White had wanted to search further for the colonists, but the crew refused to do so.

1590: Thomas Hariot’s A Briefe and True Report of the Newfound Land of Virginia is included in the first folio edition of the younger Hakluyt’s Principal Navigations, republished with some of White’s watercolors. The book also contains several documents by Ralph Lane. It is widely read and published in English, Latin, French, and German. (see Virtual Jamestown for White's paintings)

February 4, 1593: John White writes a letter to the younger Richard Hakluyt, sending him an account of what went on in the colony. Hakluyt will subsequently publish this narrative in a later edition of the compilation entitled The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffics, and Discoveries of the English Nation. (Quinn, New American World)

Aftermath

1595: After his failure in Virginia, Raleigh leads an expedition to Guiana in search of El Dorado.

1596: Raleigh, The discoverie of the large, rich and bewtiful empyre of Guiana. London, 1596. (Ed. Neil L. Whitehead, Norman: U of Oklahoma P, 1997).

Here whole shires of fruitfull rich grounds, lying now waste for want of people, do prostitute themselves unto us, like a faire and beautifull woman, in the pride and floure of desired yeeres. . . .
who can say, if the hand of the Almighty be not against them, and that he hath a work in this place, insteed of Papistrie to make the syncere light of his Gospell to shine on this people? The effecting whereof shall bee a royall crowne of euerlasting remembrance to all other blessings.

1596: Raleigh's second expedition to Guiana, and a report by leader Lawrence Keymis, A relation of the second voyage to Guiana. London, 1596. (Facsimile edition New York: Da Capo, 1968)

1606: Interest in Guiana wanes.