Mattaponi Sacred History regarding Pocahontas
Paula Gunn Allen's Pocahontas: Medicine Woman, Spy,
Entrepreneur, Diplomat (2003) and Linwood Custalow and Angela
Daniels' The True
Story of Pocahontas (2007) are the only book-length Native
American versions of her
life. And both tell a significantly different story than the one
mainstream
America is used to. For example, see the selected pertinent sections
from The True
Story below, especially those in which the authors consciously
use the verbal formulas
"according to Mattaponi sacred oral history" or "according to Mattaponi
oral history" to authorize their account. Such verbal tags are
comparable to the force of "as the Bible says" in White culture. Here
is an example of a counter-narrative to the familiar American origin
myth embodied in the Smith-Pocahontas story.
1) Mattaponi sacred oral history
In 1559 or 1560, a young Powhatan male in line to be chief – who later
came
to be called Don Luis – boarded a Spanish ship. The Spanish writings
indicate
that it was by mutual consent, with an agreement that the young male
would be
returned shortly. Mattaponi oral history does not say whether he was
taken
captive or if he went willingly. . . . Eventually, Luis was able to
convince
the Spanish to return him to his homeland in the early 1570s. . . . The
Spanish
threat influenced Wahunsenaca [Powhatan] to both build alliances with
the
regional tribes, enlarging the Powhatan nation, and to make friends
with the
English when they arrived in 1607. According to Mattaponi sacred oral
history,
Luis and Wahunsenaca were the same person. . . . Consequently, when the
English
arrived with the weaponry equivalent to the Spanish, Wahunsenaca
desired to
have them as an allied tribe within the Powhatan nation. (16-17)
2) Friendly Native Americans
According to Mattaponi sacred oral history, Wahunsenaca truly liked
Smith. He offered Smith a position to be a werowance of the
English colonists,
to be the leader of the English within the Powhatan nation. In
addition,
Wahunsenaca told Smith that the English could live and settle in a more
habitable place in the Powhatan nation than on Jamestown Island. (18)
3) No need for a rescue
Although Smith alleged years later that Pocahontas saved his life
during a four-day ceremony in the process of his being made a Powhatan werowance,
his life was never in danger. His life did not need saving. Why would
the Powhatan want to kill a person they were initiating to be a werowance.
By Smith's own admission, Wahunsenaca gave Smith his word that Smith
would be released in four days. Smith's fears was either a figment of
his own imagination or an embellishment to dramatize his narrative. (19)
4) Pocahontas not there anyway
The
quiakros played an integral part in such a ceremony. Children,
male or female, were not allowed to attend. . . . Pocahontas would not
have been in the ceremony to throw herself on top of Smith to save him
because the quiakros would not have allowed Pocahontas to be
there. (19-20)
5) Wahunseneca freely released Smith
After being initiated as a werowance
over the English colony, not only was Smith now considered a member of
Powhatan society, but the entire English colony were considered
members. . . . True to his word, released Smith after the
four days transpired. (20-21)
6) Wahunseneca a busy leader
In January 1609, Smith made a detour during his rounds of securing food
for
the Jamestown fort by going to Werowocomoco. He arrived in the Powhatan
capital
village without giving prior notice. Powhatan carriers were sent out to
notify
Chief Powhatan Wahunsenaca. Wahunsenaca put aside what he was doing and
returned to Werowocomoco. (Mattaponi oral history does not say
precisely where
he was at that time. Just as with the president today, there are
numerous
places where he could have been. He could have been away for business,
such as
meeting with other chiefs in another village. He could have been away
hunting.
Or he could have been away for spiritual renewal, such as going to the
Uttamussac Temple.) (29)
7) Pocahontas could not have warned
Smith
Once again, according to Mattaponi sacred oral history, Smith's claim
of
Pocahontas having saved – or, in this case, warned – him do not seem
possible
within the cultural standards of seventeenth-century Powhatan society.
Pocahontas warning Smith in the night implies that Pocahontas, a young
girl, was
capable of slipping out in the cold night past all adult supervision.
According
to Mattaponi sacred oral history, this is unlikely. Powhatan children
were
watched closely and learned discipline early in life. . . . Pocahontas,
being
the favorite daughter of Wahunsenaca, was watched even more closely
than other
children. (30-31)
8) Smith's life never threatened
Smith wrote that Wahunsenaca had put a death warrant on him. If this
was so,
why did Smith then travel deeper into Powhatan territory to the
Pamunkey
villages the next morning instead of returning to Jamestown? Either
Smith was
so confident in his ability to defend himself from the Powhatan or
there was no
reasonable threat to his life, which is the position of Mattaponi
sacred oral
history. The Powhatan were not trying to kill Smith. (31)
9) Wahunsenaca unaware of tensions
among the
English
In hindsight, knowing Mattaponi oral history, it is likely that the
other
English colonists were jealous of Smith's close and powerful
relationship with
the Powhatan paramount chief. Wahunsenaca was unaware of tensions among
the
English colonists and their disdain for Smith. Instead, Wahunsenaca and
the quiakros
had perceived Smith as the leader of the English. As such, making
him the werowance (chief) of the English should not have been
a
problem; however, the offer may have escalated political tensions
between Smith
and his countrymen. (40)
10) The story of Japazaw's betrayal
of Pocahontas offensive
The long continuation of these implications [that Japazaw turned
Pocahontas
over to the English for a copper kettle] by popular media and scholars
is
deeply offensive to Powhatan descendants. It insinuates that the
Potowomac valued material possessions over the love and commitment to
their
relatives and their paramount chief, that they were immoral. (51)
11) The English killed Pocahontas's
husband
Mattaponi
sacred oral history states that before Argall took sail, several of
Argall's
men returned to Pocahontas's home and killed her husband, Kocoum. They
knew the location of Pocahontas's home because they had followed
Japazaw's wife
when she went to find Pocahontas. Taken by surprise, Kocoum was easily
overcome. As the ship pulled out [Argall's], Pocahontas did not realize
her husband had been murdered. Her son survived because as Pocahontas
left with Japazaw's wife, Little Kocoum was handed over to the other
women in
the tribe. (51)
12) Pocahontas submitted to capture
to save her people
Why didn't Pocahontas fight or resist? Instead of resisting, Pocahontas
bent her will to her captors. She went along with them obediently
because
there was nothing else she could do. Our belief is that Pocahontas
submitted
to the English in order to protect her people. If she had behaved badly
and
resisted the English colonists, they might have taken their anger out
on our
people. Also, it was the Powhatan custom to respect all life, even the
lives
of those who sought ill toward our people. (56)
13) History silent on her
conversion and baptism
Shortly after the staged ransom exchange, Pocahontas was converted to
Christianity
and was baptized. She was given the Christian name Rebecca. Mattaponi
sacred
oral history tells us very little about Pocahontas's time in captivity,
her
conversion to Christianity, her baptism and marriage. Was Pocahontas
baptized
in Jamestown or Henrico? Neither Mattaponi oral history nor scholarship
knows. There
is no indication that any Powhatan were present during her baptism.
(58)
14) Pocahontas was brainwashed in
captivity and did what she had to in order to survive
Mattaponi sacred oral history does not elaborate on whether Pocahontas
truly
converted to Christianity or not. In captivity, she was brainwashed.
She was
captured. She did not know where she was going or what was going to
happen to
her; thus the best way out was to submit to her captors. However, there
may
have come a point in her captivity when she did not think she could get
out.
All of these factors played a part in Pocahontas's decision not to
retaliate
against her captors. Being a bright person, she would have known what
to do to
survive the situation. (59)
15) Pocahontas deeply depressed at
time of marriage
Mattaponi sacred oral history does not put a great deal of emphasis on
the
details of the marriage between Pocahontas and Rolfe, which occurred in
the
spring on 1614. Instead, the Powhatan were more concerned with
Pocahontas's
well-being and safety. Among other things, what is known from Mattaponi
oral history
is that Pocahontas was deeply depressed. (61)
16) Pocahontas was raped
repeatedly, possibly by more than one person
When Mattachanna and Uttamattamakin arrived at Jamestown, Pocahontas
confided in Mattachanna that she had been raped. Mattaponi sacred oral
history
is very clear on this: Pocahontas was raped. It is possible that it had
been
done to her by more than one person and repeatedly. My grandfather and
other
teachers of Mattaponi oral history said that Pocahontas was raped. The
possibility of being taken captive was a danger to beware of in
Powhatan
society, but rape was not tolerated. (62)
17) Pocahontas was moved in order
to hide the pregnancy
Although scholars differ on where Pocahontas stayed during her months
of
captivity, whether in Jamestown or Henrico, we believe that Pocahontas
was
moved from Jamestown to Henrico in order to hide her advancing
pregnancy. Mattaponi
sacred oral history is very clear that Pocahontas was kept in Henrico
during
the majority of her time in captivity. Pocahontas was taken to live
under the
supervision of Reverend Alexander Whitaker, who lived upriver at the
Henrico
plantation located near present-day Richmond. Henrico was more spacious
and
secluded than Jamestown; thus, fewer colonists would have noticed
Pocahontas's
pregnancy. In addition, Pocahontas was forced to wear English clothing
to
conceal her pregnancy. (63)
18) Married only after her child
was born, Jamestown governor the possible father
Within one year of being held captive, by the spring of 1614 Pocahontas
had
been converted to Christianity, had been baptized, had given birth to a
son of
mixed blood, named Thomas, and had been married to the Englishman
Rolfe.
Mattaponi oral history is adamant that Thomas was born out of wedlock,
prior to
the marriage ceremony between Pocahontas and Rolfe. It is not known who
Thomas's father was, but one likely candidate appears to be Sir Thomas
Dale. (64)
19) Love of Rolfe doubtful
According to Mattaponi sacred oral history, the marriage between
Pocahontas
and Rolfe occurred at Jamestown. Although Pocahontas obviously
submitted to the
marriage, it is hard to say whether Pocahontas really loved Rolfe or
not. Under
the circumstances of Pocahontas's confinement, it is doubtful. The
power
differential was too great. She was not free to return to her people.
She was
not free to choose. She married Rolfe because she had just recently had
a
child by an Englishman. (65)
20) Wahunsenaca gave Pocahontas
pearls as a wedding gift
Although Wahunsenaca did not attend the wedding, we know through sacred
Mattaponi oral history that he gave Pocahontas a pearl necklace as her
wedding
gift. The pearls were obtained from the Chesapeake Bay oyster beds. The
necklace was notable for the large size and fine quality of the pearls.
Pearls
of this size were rare, making them a suitable gift for a paramount
chief's
daughter. No mention of this necklace has been found in the English
writings,
but a portrait of Pocahontas wearing a pearl necklace used to hang in
the
governor's mansion in Richmond. (67)
21) Native Americans have knowledge
of tobacco
Rolfe's problems in competing with the Spanish tobacco appeared to stem
from
lack of knowledge and care in curing the tobacco. According to
Mattaponi sacred
oral history, the Native people of the New World possessed the
knowledge of how
to cure and process this tobacco successfully. The Spanish gained this
knowledge from the Native communities they had subdued. In the Powhatan
society, it was the quiakros who possessed the knowledge of
how to
cure tobacco. (73)
22) Through tobacco and because of
Pocahontas, the Powhatan saved the colony
The Powhatan actually saved the colony by sharing their knowledge of
tobacco
curing and management. This sharing of knowledge was directly linked to
Wahunsenaca and his daughter, Pocahontas. It was directly related to
Wahunsenaca because he had wanted to be friends, at peace, in alliance
with the
English from the beginning. . . . It was related directly to Pocahontas
because
she was held in such high favor because of her father. . . . The deep
parental
affection Wahunsenaca had for his daughter is always evident throughout
Mattaponi sacred oral history. (76)
23) Pocahontas murdered by the
English
Upon returning to England, Mattachanna and the high priest
Uttamattamakin,
together with other quiakros (priests) who had accompanied
them on the
journey, reported to Chief Powhatan Wahunsenaca that Pocahontas had
been
murdered in England. The quiakros reported that Pocahontas
was
most likely poisoned. Pocahontas was in good health while in England
and
when she got on the boat to head home. They were still on the river,
not
yet having reached the open sea, when Pocahontas got sick. After coming
from the Captain's cabin, Pocahontas had a radical problem and died.
This is
the account of the Mattaponi sacred oral history. (83-84)
24) Pocahontas aware of English
deceit
Upon learning the truth of the intentions of the English during her
visit to
England, Pocahontas became emboldened. No longer were her eyes closed
to their
deceit. We believe that the English colonists did not want Pocahontas
to
return to her homeland. Being away from her father for so long, the
first
thing she would have done would have been to run to him. She would have
wanted
to reveal Smith's deceptions. . . . In England, she saw through their
lies. (84)
25) Her death planned even before
going to England
Mattaponi sacred oral history suggests that the plots to kidnap and
murder
Pocahontas were conceived long before the events occurred. One role of quiakros
was to act as intelligence agents. They were continually gathering
information about what was happening that pertained to the safety of
the
Powhatan nation. As such, Mattaponi sacred oral history suggests that
Pocahontas's death was planned prior to Argall's ship leaving for
England. The quiakros had warned Wahunsenaca prior to
Pocahontas's departure
that she might not return. (85)
26) Murderers not known
Who was behind Pocahontas's murder? . . . A Dale-Rolfe-Whitaker trio
comprising agreements and pacts is not out of the realm of possibility,
but
Mattaponi sacred oral history does not reveal who or how many persons
were
behind her murder. (85-86)